Activity of Lignin-Modifying Enzyme of Selected Medicinal Mushrooms in Submerged Fermentation of Lignocellulosic Materials.

In the present study, wide diversity in the set and activity of lignin-modifying enzymes (LME) was revealed during submerged fermentation of mandarin peel with 15 strains of white rot Basidiomycetes. Among them, Trametes pubescens BCC153 was distinguished by the simultaneous production of laccase, manganese peroxidase (MnP), and lignin peroxidase (LiP). Supplementation of CuSO4 at a concentration of 1 mM in the media for the cultivation of four Trametes species manifold increased the production of laccase. The diverse effects of chemically different lignocellulosic growth substrates and nitrogen sources on the production of individual LME have been established. The maximum laccase activity of T. pubescens was observed when the fungus was cultivated on media containing mandarin peel and wheat bran, whereas the highest MnP and LiP activities were detected in the submerged fermentation of tobacco residue. Peptone and casein hydrolysate appeared to be the best sources of nitrogen to produce laccase and both peroxidases by T. pubescens BCC153 whereas KNO3 was the worst nitrogen-containing compound for the production of all enzymes.

The Effects of Tiger Milk Mushroom Lignosus rhinocerus TM02® (Agaricomycetes) on Leukemogenicity Tyrosine Kinase Cell Lines.

Leukemia can be a result of genetic changes associated with protein tyrosine kinase activity such as in MPL W515L and BCR/ABL genes. However, the current conventional treatment of leukemia produces severe side effects that urge the approach to use natural products. A medicinal mushroom, Lignosus rhinocerus shows potential as an anti-cancer treatment. To investigate the efficacy and mechanism of action of the L. rhinocerus cultivar (TM02®) extract on leukemogenic tyrosine kinase cell lines, a cold-water extract (CWE) was produced by using TM02® sclerotia powder at 4°C. The carbohydrate and protein contents were found to be 77.24% and 1.75% respectively. In comparison to the normal Ba/F3 cell, the CWE TM02® shows significant effects on exhibiting proliferation of Ba/F3 expressed MPL W515L and BCR/ABL, possibly due to the presence of phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of TM02®, which contribute to act on various signaling pathways, and the reported apoptotic activity of CWE TM02®. In contrast, CWE TM02® significantly exhibited high scavenging activity of both Ba/F3 expressed MPL W515L and BCR/ABL. At concentrations of 125 µg/mL and 500 µg/mL of CWE TM02® decreased 49.5% and 67.5% of cell migration activity of Ba/F3 expressed MPL W515L and BCR/ABL respectively. Therefore, we postulate that CWE TM02® has the capability to mediate the migration route of the leukemogenic tyrosine kinase cell lines.

Submerged Culture of Edible and Medicinal Mushroom Mycelia and Their Applications in Food Products: A Review.

Edible mushrooms have rich nutrition (e.g., proteins, dietary fibers, polysaccharides) and they can be potential sources of important ingredients in food processing. However, the cultivation of mushroom fruiting bodies needs a relatively long time, and they can be easily polluted during the growth process. At the same time, a lot of labor and larger planting areas are also required. As we all know, submerged fermentation is a good way to produce edible mushroom mycelia with less environmental pollution and small footprint, which are also rich in nutrition and bioactive components that are used as dietary supplements or health care products in the food industry. Therefore, it can be considered that the replacement of edible mushroom fruiting bodies with edible mushroom mycelia produced through submerged fermentation has great application potential in food production. At present, most of the research about edible mushroom mycelia focuses on the production of bioactive metabolites in fermentation liquid, but there are few reports that concentrate on their applications in food. This paper reviews the research progress of submerged culture of edible mushroom mycelia and their applications in food products.

Antioxidation and Hepatoprotection of Selenium Mycelium Polysaccharides Against Alcoholic Liver Diseases from the Cultivated Morel Mushroom Morchella esculenta (Ascomycota).

The liver was regarded as the most important metabolic and detoxification organ in vivo, and Morchella esculenta had been reported as the admittedly rare edible fungus belonging to Ascomycetes contributing to the abundant bioactivities. The objective of this study aimed to confirm the potential antioxidant activities of selenium mycelium polysaccharides (Se-MIP) from M. esculenta against alcoholic liver diseases (ALD) in mice. The results indicated that a selenium concentration of 25 µg/mL exhibited potential in vitro antioxidant capacities of Se-MIP. The in vivo mice results demonstrated that Se-MIP showed potential anti-ALD effects by improving the antioxidant activities and alleviating the hepatic dysfunctions. The present conclusions suggested that Se-MIP could be used as a candidate on improving ALD and its complications for further clinical investigations.

The selenium-independent phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase from Theobroma cacao (TcPHGPX) protects plant cells against damages and cell death.

Proteins from the glutathione peroxidase (GPX) family, such as GPX4 or PHGPX in animals, are extensively studied for their antioxidant functions and apoptosis inhibition. GPXs can be selenium-independent or selenium-dependent, with selenium acting as a potential cofactor for GPX activity. However, the relationship of plant GPXs to these functions remains unclear. Recent research indicated an upregulation of Theobroma cacao phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase gene (TcPHGPX) expression during early witches' broom disease stages, suggesting the use of antioxidant mechanisms as a plant defense strategy to reduce disease progression. Witches' broom disease, caused by the hemibiotrophic fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa, induces cell death through elicitors like MpNEP2 in advanced infection stages. In this context, in silico and in vitro analyses of TcPHGPX's physicochemical and functional characteristics may elucidate its antioxidant potential and effects against cell death, enhancing understanding of plant GPXs and informing strategies to control witches' broom disease. Results indicated TcPHGPX interaction with selenium compounds, mainly sodium selenite, but without improving the protein function. Protein-protein interaction network suggested cacao GPXs association with glutathione and thioredoxin metabolism, engaging in pathways like signaling, peroxide detection for ABA pathway components, and anthocyanin transport. Tests on tobacco cells revealed that TcPHGPX reduced cell death, associated with decreased membrane damage and H2O2 production induced by MpNEP2. This study is the first functional analysis of TcPHGPX, contributing to knowledge about plant GPXs and supporting studies for witches' broom disease control.

Innovative utilization of harvested mushroom substrate for green synthesis of silver nanoparticles: A multi-response optimization approach.

In this work, harvested mushroom substrate (HMS) has been explored for the first time through a comprehensive optimization study for the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). A multiple response central composite design with three parameters: pH of the reaction mixture, temperature, and incubation period at three distinct levels was employed in the optimization study. The particle size of AgNPs, UV absorbance, and the percentage of Ag/Cl elemental ratio were considered as the response parameters. For each response variable examined the model used was found to be significant (P < 0.05). The ideal conditions were: pH 8.9, a temperature of 59.4 °C, and an incubation period of 48.5 h. The UV-visible spectra of AgNPs indicated that the absorption maxima for AgNP-3 were 414 nm, 420 for AgNPs-2, and 457 for AgNPs-1. The XRD analysis of AgNPs-3 and AgNPs-2 show a large diffraction peak at ∼38.2°, ∼44.2°, ∼64.4°, and ∼77.4°, respectively, which relate to the planes of polycrystalline face-centered cubic (fcc) silver. Additionally, the XRD result of AgNPs-1, reveals diffraction characteristics of AgCl planes (111, 200, 220, 311, 222, and 400). The TEM investigations indicated that the smallest particles were synthesized at pH 9 with average diameters of 35 ± 6 nm (AgNPs-3). The zeta potentials of the AgNPs are -36 (AgNPs-3), -28 (AgNPs-2), and -19 (AgNPs-1) mV, respectively. The distinct IR peak at 3400, 1634, and 1383 cm-1 indicated the typical vibration of phenols, proteins, and alkaloids, respectively. The AgNPs were further evaluated against gram (+) strain Bacillus subtilis (MTCC 736) and gram (-) strain Escherichia coli (MTCC 68). All of the NPs tested positive for antibacterial activity against both bacterial strains. The study makes a sustainable alternative to disposing of HMS to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Neurotrophic and Neuroprotective Effects of Hericium erinaceus.

Hericium erinaceus is a valuable mushroom known for its strong bioactive properties. It shows promising potential as an excellent neuroprotective agent, capable of stimulating nerve growth factor release, regulating inflammatory processes, reducing oxidative stress, and safeguarding nerve cells from apoptosis. The active compounds in the mushroom, such as erinacines and hericenones, have been the subject of research, providing evidence of their neuroprotective effects. Further research and standardization processes for dietary supplements focused on H. erinaceus are essential to ensuring effectiveness and safety in protecting the nervous system. Advancements in isolation and characterization techniques, along with improved access to pure analytical standards, will play a critical role in achieving standardized, high-quality dietary supplements based on H. erinaceus. The aim of this study is to analyze the protective and nourishing effects of H. erinaceus on the nervous system and present the most up-to-date research findings related to this topic.

Chemical Characterization and Biological Functions of Hot Alkali-Soluble Crude Polysaccharide from the Water-Insoluble Residue of Macrocybe lobayensis (Agaricomycetes) Fruit Bodies.

Macrocybe lobayensis owe popularity in several traditional cultures not only for delectable taste but also for its nutraceutical profile conveying great health benefits. Previous investigations have enumerated several bioactivities of the valuable mushroom such as antioxidant, anti-ageing, immune-modulation, and anti-tumor properties where polysaccharides played the key role. Macrofungi polymers are generally isolated by the conventional hot water process discarding the residue which still contains plenty of therapeutic components. The present study thus aimed to re-use such leftover of the edible macrofungus by immersing it in NaOH solution at high temperature supporting circular economy. Consequently a polysaccharide fraction, namely ML-HAP, was isolated that was found to be consisted of a homogenous heteropolysaccharide with molecular weight of ~ 128 kDa and ß-glucan as the chief ingredient as evident by spectroscopy, gel-permeation chromatography, high performance thin-layer chromatography, and Fourier transform infrared. Antioxidant activity assays revealed that the macromolecules possess good radical scavenging, metal ion binding and reducing power. Nevertheless, strong immune-potentiation was also recorded as the extract triggered murine macrophage cell viability, pinocytosis, nitric oxide production and morpho-dynamics within 24 h where the best effect was executed at the level of 100 µg/mL. Altogether, the polysaccharides extracted from M. lobayensis exhibited a potent application prospect in functional food, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and health care industries that could raise economic value of the underexplored mushroom.

Orellanine: From Fungal Origin to a Potential Future Cancer Treatment.

Fungal metabolites represent an underutilized resource in the development of novel anticancer drugs. This review will focus on the promising fungal nephrotoxin orellanine, found in mushrooms including Cortinarius orellanus (Fools webcap). Emphasis will be placed on its historical significance, structural features, and associated toxicomechanics. Chromatographic methods for analysis of the compound and its metabolites, its synthesis, and chemotherapeutic potential are also discussed. Although orellanine's exceptional selectivity for proximal tubular cells is well documented, the mechanics of its toxicity in kidney tissue remains disputed. Here, the most commonly proposed hypotheses are detailed in the context of the molecule's structure, the symptoms seen following ingestion, and its characteristic prolonged latency period. Chromatographic analysis of orellanine and its related substances remains challenging, while biological evaluation of the compound is complicated by uncertainty regarding the role of active metabolites. This has limited efforts to structurally refine the molecule; despite numerous established methods for its synthesis, there is minimal published material on how orellanine's structure might be optimized for therapeutic use. Despite these obstacles, orellanine has generated promising data in preclinical studies of metastatic clear cell renal cell carcinoma, leading to the early 2022 announcement of phase I/II trials in humans.

Evaluation of Pleurotus Mushroom Effects on Histopathological Changes in Organs of Diabetic Rats.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder that can be categorized mainly into type 1 and type 2. Diabetes type 1 is caused due to ß-cell destruction, whereas type 2 is caused by the resistance of cell receptors. Many therapies are available for the management of diabetes, but they have some side effects, and as a result of this, people are attracted to natural treatments. Pleurotus mushrooms are well documented for their medicinal attributes and their role in the treatment of diseases like cancer, infectious disease, neurodiseases, and inflammatory disease. The protective mechanism of the Pleurotus fossulatus (P. fossulatus) mushroom and its detailed histological study on kidneys and the liver in diabetic conditions were unexplored. The present study evaluated the effects of P. fossulatus aqueous extract on histological changes in the diabetic rat model. Male Wistar albino rats were used to create the diabetic model by using streptozotocin (STZ) intraperitoneal (IP) injection. The animals were separated into five different groups, with six animals in each. Only group I, animals that did not receive STZ, was considered a normal control. Group II was a diabetic control and received normal saline, and group III was a drug control and received metformin as a standard drug. Groups IV and V were dosing groups, which received the aqueous extract of P. fossulatus in 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg of body weight concentrations, labeled as T1 and T2 groups, respectively. The T1 and T2 groups clearly showed their potential to reverse the histopathological changes in the kidney and liver. However, the T2 group was more effective than the T1 group, as results indicate that functions of the glomerulus and its structural deformity were restored to their near-natural form in the T2 group. In the case of the liver, the histological changes like the dilatation of sinusoids, more numbers of the Kupffer cell formation, and necrosis were restored in the T2 group. All these results proved the potential of P. fossulatus against the side effects of diabetes. It could protect the organs from developing diabetic nephropathy (DN) and liver-related diseases like cirrhosis and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

Potentiation of Antitumor Activity by Antibody Drugs and Mushroom-Derived ß-Glucans in Natural Killer Cell-Mediated Tumoricidal Activities against Non-Hodgkin's B-Cell Lymphoma.

ß-glucans are polysaccharides that activate innate immunity. We herein investigated whether P-glucans promote the immunological effects of antibody drugs against malignant tumor cells using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Rituximab bound to CD20-specific lymphoma and exhibited cytotoxic activity in the presence of human mononuclear cells, but not neutrophils. The addition of Sparassis crispa (cauliflower mushroom)-derived ß-glucan (SCG) and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) to co-cultures of PBMCs and Raji lymphoma cells further promoted antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). The GM-CSF treatment increased ß-glucan receptor expression on adherent cells in PBMCs. A co-stimulation with GM-CSF and SCG of PBMCs induced an increase in the number of spreading cells and the activation of natural killer (NK) cells. The enhancement in ADCC was abolished by the removal of NK cells, indicating that SCG and GM-CSF increased ADCC against lymphoma by activating ß-glucan receptor-expressing cells in PBMCs and enhancing NK cell activity. The synergistic mechanisms of action of mushroom-derived ß-glucans and biopharmaceuticals, including recombinant cytokines and antibodies, in the treatment of malignant tumor cells provide important insights into the clinical efficacy of ß-glucans from mushrooms.

The Medicinal Mushroom Ganoderma neo-japonicum (Agaricomycetes) Polysaccharide Extract Prevents Obesity-Induced Diabetes in C57BL/6J Mice.

Ganoderma neo-japonicum Imazeki is a medicinal mushroom consumed by the indigenous people in Malaysia as a remedy for diabetes. This study aims to validate the efficacy of G. neo-japonicum polysaccharides (GNJP) on obesity-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in C57BL/6J mice. Mice were divided into seven groups; normal diet (ND)-control, high-fat-diet (HFD)-control, HFDGNJP-treated (50, 100, 200 mg/kg b.w.), HFDMET (metformin 50 mg/kg; positive-control) and ND-GNJP (200 mg/kg b.w.). Mice were administered GNJP or metformin orally for 10 weeks (thrice/week) and sacrificed after an oral glucose tolerance test. Body weight, serum biochemicals, liver histology, adipocyte gene expressions, glucose and insulin levels were measured. HFD caused obesity, dyslipidemia, and diabetes in the untreated groups. GNJP (50 mg/kg b.w.) supplementation prevented weight gain and liver steatosis, improved serum lipid profile and glucose tolerance and attenuated hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia more effectively when compared with the other treatment groups. The prevention of obesity and lipid dysregulation is plausibly attributed to the increased hormone-sensitive lipase and reduced Akt-1 and Ppary gene expressions while the up-regulation of AdipoQ (adiponectin), Prkag2 and Slc2a4 genes served to sensitize insulin and improve glucose uptake. Thus, supplementation with an appropriate dose of GNJP has promising efficacies in preventing HFD aka obesity-induced T2DM and associated metabolic abnormalities.

Chemical Components Analyzed by UPLC-QTOF-MS and In Vitro Antitumor Effects of the Chestnut Mushroom Pholiota adiposa (Agaricomycetes).

We investigated the chemical constituents and anti-tumor activity of cultivated Pholiota adiposa in vitro using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. HepG-2, A549, HeLa, and MCF-7 cells, which are 4 kinds of human cancer cell lines, were cultured in vitro, treated with different concentrations of the ethanol extract of Ph. adiposa (EPA), and cytotoxicity was determined using the cell counting kit-8 assay. Flow cytometry was used to analyze the apoptosis of HepG-2 cells via annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide double staining. Expression levels of apoptosis-associated proteins were determined via Western blotting analysis. Thirty-five components were consistent with those recorded in the chemical composition database, with sterols, fatty acids, and polysaccharide compounds accounting for a relatively high proportion. EPA showed the strongest cytotoxicity against HepG-2 cells, increasing the apoptosis rate up to 23.71 ± 1.59% at a concentration of 50 µg/mL. Ph. adiposa has various functional chemical constituents and potential anti-tumor applications. We found that the functional constituents exerted anti-tumor activity by inducing apoptosis. Furthermore, the expression levels of BCL-2-associated X were increased, whereas those of BCL-2 were decreased in cells after treatment with EPA. These results suggest that EPA induces HepG-2 cell apoptosis via a caspase-mediated pathway.

Synthesis and evaluation of the antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase activities of thiazolyl hydrazone derivatives and their application in the anti-browning of fresh-cut potato.

Tyrosinase is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of melanin, which is responsible for the browning of foods as well as many skin disorders. In order to develop new anti-browning agents with dual antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase capacities, a series of 30 thiazolyl hydrazone derivatives were synthesized. Among the molecules prepared, 6 and 30 were found to be the most potent tyrosinase inhibitors with IC50 values ​​comparable to that of kojic acid. Interestingly, 6 also has the highest radical scavenging activity among the prepared molecules. The inhibition kinetics study indicated that 6 is a non-competitive inhibitor while 30 inhibits tyrosinase competitively. The anti-browning assay of fresh-cut potato slices revealed that 6 and 30 are potent anti-browning agents with a capacity as high as kojic acid. The mechanisms of free radical scavenging and tyrosinase inhibition have been fully investigated in silico using computational kinetics, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations.

Pulsed Light Mutagenesis of the Willow Bracket Mushroom, Phellinus igniarius (Agaricomycetes), for Enhanced Production of Flavonoids, Laccase, and Fermentation Biomass.

Phellinus igniarius is a medicinal fungus possessing potent therapeutic activity due to the polysaccharides, polyphenols, flavonoids, and other secondary metabolites they contain. Laccases are crucial enzymes involved in lignin degradation in Ph. igniarius and offer great potential to accomplish several bioprocesses. To generate Ph. igniarius strains with high biomass, flavonoid, and laccase activity, we used pulsed light (PL) technology for mutagenesis of Ph. igniarius protoplasts and screened for mutants with high biomass, flavonoid, and laccase activity. At the irradiation power of 100 J, treated distance 8.5 cm, irradiation frequency was 0.5 s/time, three times treatments, after five generations of selection, three mutants were obtained with higher biomass production. Compared with control, the mycelium biomass and the flavonoid production of the screened mutant strain QB72 were increased 20.87% and 53.51%, respectively. The total amount of the accumulated extracellular laccase of the QB72 in the first 6 and 8 days increased 23.38% and 22.37% respectively, and over the total 16 days it increased 9.62%. In addition, RAPD analysis results indicated that the genetic materials of the mutant QB72 were altered. PL mutagenesis method has great potential for developing strains, especially Phellinus.

Enhancement of Potential Health Benefits of Insoluble Dietary Fiber from the Fruiting Body of Medicinal Mushroom Schizophyllum commune (Agaricomycetes) through Superfine Pulverization.

The objective of the current study is to reveal the influence of particle size of ground Schizophyllum commune and its extracted dietary fiber (DF) on physicochemical and antioxidant properties. Sch. commune powder and the extracted DF was ground by regular and superfine grinding, and their particle sizes were determined using laser diffraction particle size analyzer. The results indicated that superfine grinding could significantly pulverize DF particles to micro-scale; the particle size distribution presented a Gaussian distribution. The soluble DF in Sch. commune was increased effectively with superfine grinding. Sub-micronized insoluble DF showed increased total phenolic content (TPC) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Moreover, with particle size reduction, the oil binding capacity (OBC), nitrite ion absorption capacity (NIAC), cation-exchange capacity (CEC), cholesterol absorption capacity (CAC), and Pb ion adsorption capacity were significantly (p < 0.05) increased and the water retention capacity (WRC), swelling capacity (SC) and Cu, Zn ions adsorption capacity had no significant changes. A kind of health beneficial DF with higher soluble DF content, OBC, NIAC, CEC, CAC, Pb ion adsorption capacity and antioxidant activity (TPC and FRAP) was obtained through superfine grinding. Sch. commune DF could be potentially used as an ingredient for functional food and nutraceuticals.

Cytoprotective Effects of the Tiger's Milk Mushroom Lignosus rhinocerotis (Agaricomycetes) Sclerotia against Oxidative Stress in PC12 Cells.

Lignosus rhinocerotis (Cooke) Ryvarden has been reported to possess numerous pharmacological effects. However, little is known about its potential role in mitigating the detrimental effects of oxidative stress. The present study investigated the cytoprotective effects of L. rhinocerotis extracts against hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced oxidative stress of rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells. In the pre-treatment model, PC12 cells were pre-treated with aqueous (LRAQ) or ethanolic (LRET) extracts of L. rhinocerotis for 24 h, followed by 30 µM of H2O2 for 24 h. In the co-treatment model, the cells were incubated with LRAQ or LRET and H2O2 for 2 or 24 h to induce oxidative stress. Cell viability, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and apoptotic cells with activated caspase-3/7 were quantified. Additionally, LRET was separated into fractions by chromatographic methods prior to analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS). 320 µg/ml aqueous extract showed a significant cytoprotective effect of 70.0 ± 22.4% and 133.92 ± 8.8% in the pre-treatment and co-treatment models, respectively, compared to untreated H2O2-challenged cells. LRAQ also showed a reduction (p < 0.05) in the percentage of depolarized cells of 37.6 ± 0.6% at 640 ug/ml and 53.4 ± 4.5% at 320 ug/ml in the pre-treatment and co-treatment models, respectively, compared to untreated H2O2-challenged cells. LRAQ or LRET showed a reduction (p < 0.01) in caspase 3/7 activity compared to untreated H2O2-challenged cells in the co-treatment model. However, LRAQ or LRET did not reduce excessive ROS formation (p > 0.05). The cytoprotective effects could be attributed to the presence of fatty acids, phenols, phytosterols, and dicarboxylic acids. In conclusion, L. rhinocerotis extracts demonstrated cytoprotective effects against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in an in vitro model, contributing to the maintenance of cellular integrity through the regulation of mitochondrial function and apoptosis.

Research Progress on the Function and Application of Proteins of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: A Review.

We reviewed previous studies on the function of edible and medicinal mushroom proteins and then summarized their application in nutrition, medicine, agriculture, and industry. Meanwhile, we put forward the current problems existing in the research on mushroom proteins and propose directions for further research on the development and utilization of mushroom proteins.

Chromosome-Level Genome Sequences, Comparative Genomic Analyses, and Secondary-Metabolite Biosynthesis Evaluation of the Medicinal Edible Mushroom Laetiporus sulphureus.

Laetiporus sulphureus mushroom is a complementary and alternative medicine that has anticancer, antioxidation, and analgesic effects and immunomodulatory activity; it is used as a treatment for cough and rheumatism and is a functional food that can improve physical fitness. Even though L. sulphureus has garnered considerable biotechnological and pharmacological interest due to its excellent cellulose-degrading ability and diverse biological activities, its biosynthetic potential regarding polysaccharides and secondary metabolites has not been thoroughly examined. In this study, we sequenced and assembled the whole genome of a wild L. sulphureus isolate, NWAFU-1, from the Qinling Mountains in China. Comparative genomes analysis revealed genomic differences between subspecies, and phylogenomic analysis revealed evolutionary divergence as well as genome expansion and contraction of individual Polyporaceae family species. Bioinformatics investigation identified candidate genes associated with mating type, polysaccharide synthesis, carbohydrate-active enzymes, and secondary-metabolite biosynthesis, which included multiple terpenoids, nonribosomal peptides, and polyketides. The locations of biosynthetic core genes were mapped and displayed on chromosomes and contigs. Totals of 143 proteins from 126 coding genes were identified and divided into 14 cytochrome P450 families. Furthermore, the biosynthetic network of tetracyclic triterpenoid active components was postulated by genome mining of related genes combined with the molecular network of metabolites. The genome analysis of L. sulphureus in this study improves the understanding of the biosynthesis of active compounds, which will lay a theoretical foundation for subsequent research on active-compound biosynthesis and promote the application of Laetiporus in the field of drug research and functional-food creation. IMPORTANCE L. sulphureus is a parasitic basidiomycete fungus that causes brown rot. The fruiting bodies of L. sulphureus are used as ancient medicines in China and Europe to cure cancer, analgesia, cough, and rheumatism and are considered a functional food that regulates the body and improves health. L. sulphureus was inferred to be a tetrapolar system based on a high-quality genome, which will aid molecular breeding and artificial farming. Screening polysaccharide synthesis candidate genes and comparing carbohydrate-associated genes in brown-rot basidiomycetes help understand their growth. Identifying core genes for secondary-metabolite biosynthesis, gene cluster family analysis, and comparative cluster analysis will guide heterologous-biosynthesis investigations of these genes and help elucidate the biosynthetic pathways for L. sulphureus bioactive natural components. The biosynthesis network of tetracyclic triterpenes was mapped using metabolite profiling and genome scanning. This work explores the biosynthetic capacity of L. sulphureus-derived natural products and lays the foundation for biosynthetic studies of them.

Scrutinizing the Nutritional Aspects of Asian Mushrooms, Its Commercialization and Scope for Value-Added Products.

Mushrooms are the gifts of the non-green revolution; they are not limited by land demand or specific growth requirements. Nearly 14,000 species of mushrooms are on record thus far; of these, only 2200 species are deemed edible. Only 650 species from this list have been cultivated and consumed. Farmed on waste, mushrooms are rich reservoirs of proteins, polysaccharides, metabolites, minerals and vitamins. In the following review, various edible mushrooms have been listed and their nutritional aspects and their associated contributions have been discussed. Furthermore, the commercial mushroom-based products that are on the market have been surveyed. The challenges facing the use of mushroom and mushroom products as foods, functional foods and nutraceuticals have been presented. The need to seek options to troubleshoot the current limitations has also been discussed.